Kant
Modern philosophyKant was an eighteenth-century German philosopher (1724-1804). A thinker of the German Enlightenment (the Aufklärung), he is known primarily for his Critique of Pure Reason, but also for his writings on morality, aesthetics and politics. The fourth of eleven children, he was born and died in Königsberg, never once leaving his native region. He lived by an unwavering daily routine. A teacher at the University of Königsberg, he was one of the first philosophers to hold a university chair.
Kant's Works Summarised on This Site
Critique of Pure Reason
The first part of the Kantian critical project, this work shows why metaphysics cannot constitute true knowledge.
Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Aim
Does history have a meaning? Or do events unfold randomly? Kant shows that there is an overarching design of Nature that men follow blindly.
Bibliography
Here are the essential books if you wish to gain a better understanding of this author's thought:
Guyer, Paul (2014). Kant. Routledge.
Caygill, Howard (1995). A Kant Dictionary. Blackwell Publishing.
Watkins, Erik (2009). Kant's Critique of Pure Reason: Background Source Materials. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
di Giovanni, George (2005). Freedom and Religion in Kant and His Immediate Successors. Cambridge University Press.
Wood, Allen (1999). Kant's Ethical Thought. Cambridge University Press.
Recommended Videos
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Biography: Life of Kant
Youth
Kant was born in 1724 in Königsberg, Germany, into modest circumstances. He was the fourth child in a large family of eleven. His father was a saddler who worked with leather.
He studied at the Collegium Fridericianum, then entered the University of Königsberg at the age of sixteen. He wished to study theology, but also attended courses in mathematics and philosophy, through which he encountered the thought of Leibniz.
He discovered Newton and developed an interest in physics and astronomy.
At twenty-six, the death of his father forced him to interrupt his studies and earn a living. He spent nine years as a private tutor to wealthy families, during which time he wrote his first dissertation: Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces.
His thinking at this stage was oriented towards the natural sciences and mathematics. From this period date, for example, a Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens and a reflection on earthquakes.
The Teacher: the Pre-critical Period
In 1755, he began teaching at the University of Königsberg, paid not by the state but by his students. He lectured as a Privatdozent — a private lecturer within a public institution.
He had not won a public competition, but was appointed following the publication of his second dissertation, A New Exposition of the First Principles of Metaphysical Knowledge.
Kant is the first notable example of a great philosopher teaching at a university. He covered a remarkable range of subjects, from moral philosophy to mathematics, from the art of fireworks to the science of fortifications.
He lived by an unwavering timetable, as regular as clockwork: he began work at five in the morning, dined at a quarter to one, and took his daily walk along the same route at the same hour every day — so reliably that some of the city's inhabitants set their watches by the sight of him. He retired to bed at ten o'clock each night without exception.
He never left his native region, yet he was open to the world in his own way: he followed political events closely each day, particularly developments surrounding the French Revolution, and regularly entertained friends and strangers alike at dinner.
He deviated from his routine on only two occasions: once to obtain a copy of Rousseau's The Social Contract, and again on receiving news of the early successes of the French Revolution.
In 1762, he first came across Rousseau's work. Having read Émile, or On Education and Julie, or the New Heloise, he was immediately won over, and the bust of the French philosopher remained the sole ornament on his desk until the end of his life.
His thinking then underwent an important shift: he turned away from questions of natural science to focus on moral philosophy. Rousseau was a powerful influence, as was Hume.
In 1764, he declined a professorship in poetic art.
In 1766, he took on an additional post as sub-librarian at the Court library, a position he held for six years.
In 1770, he was appointed full professor following the publication of his third dissertation: Of the Sensible and Intelligible Form and Principles of the World.
He then began work on the Critique of Pure Reason, his most celebrated work.
The Philosopher: the Critical Period
Eleven years later, in 1781, the Critique was published.
This masterpiece, which transformed the theory of knowledge and challenged the supremacy of metaphysics, initially attracted little attention. Kant therefore revised it and published a second edition in 1787.
From this point his thought entered a third and final decisive phase: the critical period.
On the professional front, he was elected a member of the Royal Academy of Science and Letters in Berlin and appointed rector of the University of Königsberg.
Philosophically, he was already at work on a new project: the Critique of Practical Reason, followed by the Critique of the Power of Judgment.
These two works appeared in 1788 and 1790 respectively, and would exert a lasting influence on moral philosophy and aesthetics.
This was an exceptionally productive period: he also wrote major works such as Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch (1795) and the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1797).
He gradually reduced his teaching owing to censorship by the Prussian government, and eventually gave it up altogether for reasons of health.
Kant, slight and frail in build, was preoccupied with his health. He went so far as to devise a fastening system for his silk stockings to prevent them from impeding the circulation of blood in his legs.
He was deeply attached to the idea of living as long as possible, and kept a register of acquaintances who predeceased him. He believed that his well-ordered way of life was the secret of his longevity — and indeed, reaching the age of eighty was a rare achievement in his day.
Diet too played its part, though Kant was by nature a gourmand who loved to eat well and followed no particular regimen — save a firm refusal to drink beer. He even toyed for a time with the idea of writing a Critique of the Culinary Arts, before abandoning the project.
He died in 1804 in Königsberg and was buried in the city's cathedral. His last words were Es ist gut
("It is well").
Main Works
Dissertation on the Form and Principles of the Sensible and the Intelligible World
Critique of Pure Reason
Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics
Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals
Critique of Practical Reason
Critique of the Power of Judgment
Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason